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< PreviousLNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 www.lngworldshipping.com 8 | AREA REPORT Europe and Mediterranean Incremental changes reshape LNG terminals across Europe Subtle developments at European LNG terminals are reshaping long-term energy strategies S ince the beginning of 2025, western and southern Europe’s LNG terminals have seen few dramatic transformations. Yet beneath the surface, a quiet but consequential series of changes is unfolding — alterations which, over time, may recalibrate the region’s energy landscape. At Belgium’s Zeebrugge terminal, a phased expansion is already yielding results. The addition of three open- rack vaporisers lifted regasification capacity to 11.3 million tonnes per annum (mtpa) in early 2024. A further 1.3 mtpa is expected by January 2026. The choice of open-rack units — using seawater or hot water from adjacent power plants in place of traditional gas-fired systems — forms part of the operator’s climate strategy. It reported avoiding 116,750 tonnes of CO2 emissions at Zeebrugge in 2023 through this approach. The terminal’s operators are also exploring options for real- time emissions reporting, using satellite data and automated plume detection to improve environmental transparency. These pilots are part of a wider European initiative to develop harmonised metrics for LNG- related emissions, co-ordinated by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas (ENTSOG). However, Zeebrugge’s role as a key hub for Russian LNG imports has not gone unnoticed. Belgium is now among the largest recipients of Russian gas by sea. Discussions are ongoing within the European Union on whether these flows should be curtailed. The situation is mirrored in Rotterdam, where Gate LNG Terminal has seen Russian shipments double year-on-year to an average of two tankers per month during summer 2024. Belgium’s energy minister, Tinne Van der Straeten, has been among those calling for tougher restrictions. Industry observers note that, although Russian gas makes up a diminishing percentage of overall EU supply, its continued presence raises strategic concerns about market exposure and potential retaliation amid escalating trade tensions. Further south, regulatory developments have already taken hold. At the Montoir-de-Bretagne terminal in France, the EU ban on transshipping Russian LNG came into effect this year. European facilities, including Montoir, may no longer be used as staging posts for onward deliveries. In response, Russian exporters are reportedly seeking alternative channels, such as ship-to-ship transfers. Despite geopolitical tensions, innovation continues. Montoir now offers bio-LNG loading services for European LNG terminals continue to be one of the largest recipients of Russian LNG (source: Boluda)www.lngworldshipping.com LNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 LNG TERMINALS IN WESTERN AND SOUTHERN EUROPE Terminal NameCountryOwner / Operator Capacity (mtpa) Location Zeebrugge LNG TerminalBelgiumFluxys6.60Zeebrugge Dunkirk LNG TerminalFrance Dunkerque LNG (Fluxys, AXA, Credit Agricola, IPM, Samsung) 9.56Dunkirk Fos Cavaou LNG TerminalFranceElengy8.82Fos-sur-Mer Fos Tonkin LNG TerminalFranceElengy1.20Fos-sur-Mer Montoir LNG TerminalFranceElengy8.00Montoir-de-Bretagne Gibraltar LNG TerminalGibraltarShell 51.00%; Government of Gibraltar 49.00%0.10Gibraltar Revithoussa LNG TerminalGreeceDESFA 100.00%5.10Revithoussa Island Adriatic LNG TerminalItalyVTTI 70%, Snam 30%6.62offshore Panigaglia LNG TerminalItalyGNL Italia Spa (Snam)2.50Porto Venere Ravenna LNG TerminalItalyGNL Italia Spa (Snam)0.70Port of Ravenna HIGAS LNG TerminalItalyHIGAS 0.20Oristano Gate LNG TerminalNetherlandsGasunie 50.00%; Vopak 50.00%11.76Maasvlakte, Port of Rotterdam Świnoujście LNGPolandPolskie LNG 100.00% (Gaz-System)6.20Świnoujście Sines LNG TerminalPortugalREN Atlantico 100.00%5.60Sines Barcelona LNG TerminalSpainEnagás 100.00%12.60Barcelona Bilbao LNG TerminalSpain Bahía de Bizkaia Gas (BBG): Enagás 40%, Ente Vasco de la Energía (EVE) 30%, Iberdrola 30% 5.10Port of Bilbao Cartagena LNG TerminalSpainEnagás 100.00%8.70Escombreras Dock El Musel LNG TerminalSpainEnagás 75.00%; Reganosa 25.00%5.88Gijon Huelva LNG TerminalSpainEnagás 100.00%8.70Huelva Mugardos LNG TerminalSpainReganosa 100.00%2.60Mugardos Sagunto LNG TerminalSpain Infraestructuras de Gas 50.00%; Iniciativas de Gas 50.00% 6.40Sagunto Port (source: Global Energy Monitor Wiki project and company websites Europe and Mediterranean AREA REPORT | 9 both trucks and small LNG carriers. This allows certified biomethane to be transformed into a liquefied form suitable for distribution to sectors that are otherwise hard to decarbonise, including maritime transport and remote industrial sites. The service was made possible after Elengy, the terminal’s operator, secured ISCC certification as a “liquefaction plant” in late 2024. Early uptake has included several pilot voyages supplying niche markets in Corsica and the Canary Islands. Elengy is also developing a booking platform to enable shipowners to schedule bio- LNG loadings in advance, with slot availability expected to be published quarterly starting in Q3 2025. In Italy, construction has also commenced on the supporting breakwater for Ravenna’s offshore terminal. Acciona and RCM, Costruzioni was awarded a EUR216M contract to build the 880-metre-long structure, which will sit more than eight kilometres offshore. Funded by Cassa Depositi e Prestiti, the work is expected to take two years. In Greece, the Revithoussa terminal “ Further south, regulatory developments have already taken hold” continues to demonstrate its relevance. Scheduled maintenance between late April and mid-May is not expected to disrupt supply. More importantly, the terminal’s regasification slots are almost fully booked through to 2030, an indicator of continued demand and long-term stability in the market. Poland, meanwhile, has completed a major infrastructure upgrade. In January 2025, Gaz-System finalised the expansion of the Świnoujście LNG terminal, bringing its regasification capacity to 8.3 billion cubic metres per year. The project added a third storage tank and a new jetty, enhancing Poland’s ability to receive and distribute gas through multiple channels and vessel types. This increase translates into at least 2.5 billion additional normal cubic metres of gas annually. LNGLNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 www.lngworldshipping.com Spanish LNG terminals look towards incremental innovations El Musel opens, Huelva leads with bio-LNG and cold energy recovery, as Spain strengthens its green energy infrastructure A cross Spain, developments at LNG terminals are currently characterised more by administrative progress than by major operational changes. However, these updates continue to shape the country’s broader energy landscape and demonstrate a clear commitment to sustainability, innovation, and long- term infrastructure planning. A significant milestone occurred in January 2025 when Spain’s El Musel LNG terminal, located in Gijón, received regulatory approval to commence operations. This long- anticipated development marked an important advance in Spain’s strategy to optimise its regasification infrastructure. Originally completed in 2013, but never commissioned due to low demand, El Musel is now set to support Spain and Europe’s energy diversification efforts. It will primarily serve as a logistics hub for re-exports, vessel unloading, and truck loading, reinforcing the country’s position as a regional LNG gateway. Elsewhere, updates from the Barcelona and Bilbao terminals have been more muted, though local achievements continue to be logged. These include new vessel handling records and logistical enhancements that point to the terminals’ operational readiness for expanded services. Among the most forward-looking of these services is bio-LNG provision, a key part of Spain’s energy transition strategy. In March 2025, Enagás launched a pioneering bio-LNG supply service at its Huelva and Barcelona regasification terminals. Bio-LNG — produced by processing organic waste into biomethane and liquefying it — offers a renewable, low-carbon alternative to conventional fossil fuels in maritime transport. The service enables the supply of bio-LNG to LNG-fuelled ships and tankers, reinforcing Spain’s leadership in green shipping initiatives. What sets this initiative apart is its use of interconnected infrastructure. Biomethane can be injected into the Environmental approval for the “Gran Caja de Frío Ecológico” project In September 2024, the Andalusian regional government approved a landmark environmental initiative: the “Gran Caja de Frío Ecológico” (Great Ecological Cold Box) project at the Port of Huelva. Spearheaded by Enagás, the project aims to recover and distribute the cold energy released during LNG regasification. This cold energy, otherwise wasted, will be channelled via a pipeline network to nearby industrial users within the port area. The goal is twofold: to help participating companies lower their energy bills by as much as 50%, and to cut associated carbon emissions by up to 90%. The Port of Huelva has allocated EUR5.5M to build the pipeline system connecting the regasification terminal to the South Dock, where multiple energy-intensive industries operate. Enagás sees the project at the Huelva LNG terminal as a leading example of how LNG infrastructure can contribute to broader decarbonisation goals, both within Spain and across the wider Mediterranean region. natural gas network anywhere in the country and still be counted as bio- LNG when delivered at the terminal, thanks to a system of mass balancing. This system provides traceability and ensures compliance with environmental standards. Both Huelva and Barcelona terminals meet the International Sustainability and Carbon Certification (ISCC EU) criteria, qualifying the bio-LNG as a sustainable fuel under EU regulations. LNG El Musel has received permission to start operations (source: Enagás) 10 | AREA REPORT Europe and Mediterraneanwww.lngworldshipping.com LNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 EU energy plan supports LNG terminal expansion Brussels eyes LNG infrastructure investment and joint purchasing to stabilise supply and reduce costs, with implications for terminals and transatlantic trade Will the EU parliament sign up to the Commission’s plan to expand LNG infrastructure across Europe? (source: European Parliament) T he European Commission’s Action Plan for Affordable Energy outlines steps to lower energy costs while maintaining supply security. While much of the plan focuses on electricity market reform and renewable energy, several provisions suggest a continued reliance on LNG imports, with potential consequences for terminal operators and shipping. The document confirms the EU remains heavily dependent on imported natural gas, with 90% of demand met by external suppliers. It acknowledges LNG has played a role in mitigating the effects of recent supply disruptions and proposes structural measures to reinforce this position. One approach under consideration is joint purchasing, which the Commission describes as a way to “leverage collective strength” in negotiations with suppliers. This model, it argues, would provide buyers with access to “cost-competitive imports” while ensuring “market- based pricing” and reducing exposure to volatility. There is also an emphasis on infrastructure investment, with the Commission stating “cross-border projects will be essential to prevent undue price disparities.” The European Grid Package, set for release in 2026, will address how to integrate gas and electricity networks more effectively. LNG terminals are expected to feature in these plans, particularly in regions where reliance on pipeline gas remains high. The Commission also suggests financial instruments could be made available to encourage infrastructure expansion, referencing the role of the European Investment Bank in supporting projects that contribute to energy resilience. The plan does not name specific terminals, but the focus on interconnectivity suggests facilities with established regasification capacity, such as those in Spain, France, the Netherlands and Germany, could play a role in future developments. The text highlights “the need for a transparent and competitive gas market”, which may indicate support for measures that encourage LNG terminal utilisation and capacity upgrades. Geopolitical considerations are also implicit in the plan. While the EU has diversified its gas supply following the reduction of Russian pipeline imports, the document notes that pricing disparities with the US remain substantial, with industrial electricity costs in Europe more than twice those of US competitors. The emphasis on “trusted LNG suppliers” and securing “long-term purchase options” will be seen by some as an attempt to strengthen ties with North American exporters. In this context, an expansion of LNG contracts with US producers could form part of broader trade discussions. LNG AREA REPORT Europe and Mediterranean | 11LNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 www.lngworldshipping.com 12 | AREA REPORT Europe and Mediterranean Orlen deepens LNG chartering with Ukraine deal Poland’s Orlen has grown its LNG fleet and strengthened its energy ties with Ukraine as the national infrastructure reaches new capacity highs O rlen’s emergence as a prominent charterer in Europe’s LNG trade has gathered momentum with the naming of two LNG carriers and a contract to supply US-sourced gas to Ukraine. The Polish state-controlled energy group held a ceremony at Hyundai Samho Heavy Industries in South Korea for the naming of Józef Piłsudski and Ignacy Jan Paderewski, two 174,000-m³ LNG carriers that will operate under long-term charter to Orlen. Both vessels are owned by shipowner Knutsen OAS and are part of a four-ship series ordered at Hyundai Samho Heavy Industries. Knutsen OAS has a further 11 LNG carriers on order elsewhere. According to Orlen, each of the two chartered ships can transport 70,000 tonnes of LNG — enough to cover the annual gas demand of around two million households in Poland. The vessels are equipped with low boil-off containment systems and two-stroke ME-GA engines. Speaking at the naming ceremony, Orlen president, Ireneusz Fąfara, described the investment as part of the company’s commitment to building “Poland’s energy security and independence”. These ships join four other LNG carriers already operating for Orlen, including Lech Kaczyński, delivered in 2022, and Grażyna Gęsicka, which began operations in 2023. Two additional vessels are expected to join the fleet by the end of 2025. The fleet supports Orlen’s long-term supply contracts with US exporters, such as Venture Global LNG and Sempra. The expansion in Orlen’s chartered tonnage has been matched by a more active role in regional energy co-operation. On 18 March 2025, Orlen confirmed it had signed a deal with Ukraine’s Naftogaz to supply 100 million cubic metres of gas. The volumes, to be sourced from the US, will be regasified and transported to the Polish-Ukrainian border. Naftogaz acting chairman, Roman Chumak, said stable gas supply remained a priority and that co-operation with Orlen enhanced Ukraine’s ability to flexibly source LNG. Orlen’s president, Ireneusz Fąfara, described the agreement as “a tangible expression of solidarity”, noting the role of Orlen’s infrastructure and fleet in delivering gas to a neighbouring country. The deal will rely on Poland’s Świnoujście terminal, where Orlen controls regasification capacity. The Świnoujście terminal itself has recently completed a major expansion. In December 2024, Gaz-System, the terminal owner and operator, increased regasification capacity from 6.2 to 8.3 billion cubic metres per year (around 6.2 mtpa). The project added a third storage tank and a second jetty, enhancing flexibility for both large- and small- scale LNG operations. In parallel, Gaz-System is advancing plans for a second import facility — a floating storage and regasification unit (FSRU) in the Gulf of Gdańsk. The Gdańsk FSRU project received its offshore building permit in December 2024 and will have a regasification capacity of 6.1 bcm per year (approximately 4.6 mtpa). It will be located several kilometres offshore, near the Port of Gdańsk, and is expected to start operations between late 2027 and early 2028. The expansion of Poland’s LNG infrastructure has been supported by regulatory updates. A new terminal access code for Świnoujście came into effect on 1 January 2025, alongside revised tariffs for regasification services. These changes reflect the maturing structure of Poland’s LNG sector and its role in regional gas flows. LNG Ignacy Jan Paderewski is one of two 174,000-m 3 LNG carrier newbuildings on long-term charter from Knutsen OAS (source: Orlen)SECURE YOUR ENERGY safety, sustainability, flexibility oltoffshore.it LNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 www.lngworldshipping.com 14 | AREA REPORT Europe and Mediterranean FSRUs on the move: Europe’s shifting LNG map The fluid nature of FSRU operations is reshaping LNG supply dynamics across Europe F loating Storage and regasification units (FSRUs), once seen as temporary infrastructure for emergencies or transitional supply, are proving more complex, more mobile, and more political than originally conceived. Since the start of 2024, European FSRU operations have been reshuffled by market conditions, regulatory pressure and strategic recalibration. The appeal of FSRUs lies in their ability to relocate, bypass lengthy permitting procedures, and provide rapid access to gas markets. But mobility brings instability. Nowhere is this more evident than in Germany. Deutsche ReGas recently terminated its charter of the Energos Power FSRU at Mukran, cutting the terminal’s regasification capacity in half. According to Argus Media, the decision stemmed from pricing disagreements with state-controlled Deutsche Energy Terminal (DET). Although Energos Power remains in German waters for now, Egyptian LNG interests have reportedly expressed interest in leasing the vessel. Cape Ann FSRU in Le Havre presents a different challenge. Though technically operational since late 2023, the vessel has stood largely idle during the 2024–25 winter season. A Bloomberg media report cited high operational costs as the principal obstacle, calling into question the commercial rationale for a project originally intended to bolster energy security. Even when installed, FSRUs are not guaranteed to regasify. By contrast, Italy has embraced the floating approach with state-backed determination. Snam now operates two FSRUs — at Piombino and, soon, Ravenna. Golar Tundra has processed 39 LNG cargoes in its first nine months at Piombino, equivalent to 2.45 bcm, LNG Prime media reported in late 2024. Snam’s acquisition of BW Singapore adds a third unit to its portfolio, one that will serve the Adriatic coast once installed off Ravenna. Greece’s experience highlights another feature of FSRUs: regional interconnectivity. The Alexandroupolis terminal, operational since October 2024, has scheduled just seven LNG deliveries for its first year, despite a nominal capacity of 5.5 bcm. According to Argus media reports, this reflects commercial caution rather than technical constraint. Still, the project’s strategic value extends beyond domestic supply. Bulgaria’s Bulgargaz received the inaugural cargo from TotalEnergies, part of a broader effort to route non-Russian gas into the Balkans and Central Europe. BW Singapore: a third FSRU in the Snam Italian LNG portfolio (source: BW)www.lngworldshipping.com LNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 AREA REPORT Europe and Mediterranean | 15 Mobility also applies to planning. Greece’s second project, Argo FSRU, remains under development by Mediterranean Gas, with Klaipedos Nafta and ExxonMobil involved. With Romanian transmission operator Transgaz recently entering the project, the backers appear to be positioning Argo as a regional hub. The company reported in 2023 that interest in regasification capacity was strong, but did not commit to a final investment decision. Even in countries with long-established LNG infrastructure, floating terminals are being re-evaluated. Toscana FSRU, offshore Livorno, underwent maintenance in 2024 and is now certified to remain in operation until at least 2044. The decision reflects continued utility in a floating terminal originally intended as a transitional measure more than a decade ago. Malta’s Delimara FSRU presents a different kind of example — one that sits quietly at the margin of Europe’s LNG narrative. Operating since 2017 and serving a single 200 MW power station, Armada LNG Mediterrana has received little attention and no recorded upgrades in recent years. With a modest capacity of 0.5 mtpa, it is neither a regional connector nor a platform for FSRUS IN WESTERN AND SOUTHERN EUROPE TERMINALCOUNTRYOWNER / OPERATOR CAPACITY (MTPA) LOCATION Krk FSRU (LNG Croatia)CroatiaHEP Grupa 85.00%; Plinacro 15.00%1.91Omišalj, Krk Island (Hrvatska) ETYFA Prometheus FSRUCyprusETYFA 100.00%1.00Vasilikos Le Havre FSRUFranceTotalEnergies 100.00%3.68Port of Le Havre Wilhelmshaven FSRUGermanyUniper 100.00%5.70Wilhelmshaven Brunsbüttel FSRUGermanyGerman LNG Terminal 100.00%3.68Brunsbüttel Mukran FSRUGermanyDeutsche ReGas 100.00%9.93Rügen Argo FSRU (proposed)Greece Mediterranean Gas, ExxonMobil, Goldenport, Klaipedos Nafta 3.00Volos Alexandroupolis FSRUGreeceGastrade 100.00%1.00Gulf of Alexandroupolis Toscana FSRUItalyOLT Offshore LNG Toscana 100.00%3.68offshore Livorno Piombino FSRUItalyFSRU Italia 100.00%3.68Port of Piombino BW SingaporeItalySnam 100%5.00Ravenna Delimara FSRUMaltaArmada LNG Mediterrana 100.00%0.50Marsaxlokk Eemshaven FSRUNetherlandsEemsEnergyTerminal BV 100.00%5.88Eemshaven Gdańsk FSRUPolandGaz-System 100.00%4.60Gdańsk (source: Global Energy Monitor Wiki project and company websites) diversification. Yet its continued operation illustrates how FSRUs span a spectrum of roles — from headline-grabbing geopolitical assets to low-profile domestic utilities. Similarly, the Eemshaven terminal in the Netherlands remains operational but static. Commissioned in 2022 as part of the response to Russian gas disruptions, its role has stabilised without further expansion or redevelopment during 2025. These contrasts highlight the uneven evolution of FSRUs across the continent: some, like those in Italy and Greece, are growing or attracting new partners; others, such as Le Havre or Mukran, are entering uncertain phases; and a few, like Delimara and Eemshaven, remain operational but uneventful. This stratification reflects how FSRU mobility is no longer solely about where vessels might move next — but also about which installations have outlived their urgency without being decommissioned, quietly settling into long-term service. The story of FSRUs in Europe is no longer one of emergency deployment. It is one of continual repositioning — commercially, geographically, and politically. The vessels may be floating, but the decisions surrounding them are anything but adrift. LNG FSRU mobility is no longer solely about where vessels might move next “LNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 www.lngworldshipping.com OLT Offshore LNG Toscana represents one of several configurations that today define the floating LNG sector (source: OLT) Mooring floating LNG for tomorrow Global floating LNG projects are adopting diverse mooring systems to meet environmental and operational demands from deepwater to cyclone-prone regions W hen OLT Offshore launched its new capacity allocation procedure for the Toscana FSRU in April 2025, it highlighted a broader development: floating LNG infrastructure is evolving in technical sophistication. The multi- year allocation round, anchored in long-term regasification capacity and open season transparency, reaffirms the terminal’s commercial stability. At Toscana’s core is an engineered mooring and station-keeping solution enabling year-round offshore operations near Livorno, in exposed Tyrrhenian waters. OLT Offshore LNG Toscana, a converted LNG carrier, offers side-by- side offloading. It represents one of several floating LNG configurations. From turret-moored units in cyclone-prone offshore Australia to jetty-linked regas units in the Baltic, station-keeping technologies vary by geography. With projects under construction or planned in Congo, Nigeria, the US, and Southeast Asia, mooring systems are being scrutinised for reliability, fatigue life, environmental resilience, and redeployment potential. Shell’s Prelude, the largest FLNG facility, set the benchmark for internal turret mooring in harsh conditions. The 488-m unit is anchored by 16 catenary mooring lines spread across a weather-vaning internal turret engineered to endure cyclonic storms off Australia’s northwest shelf. Flexible production risers with bend stiffeners and high-pressure swivels reduce stress. Three stern thrusters supplement the turret during offloading, reflecting a hybrid station-keeping approach. In contrast, Golar’s Hilli Episeyo, moored off Cameroon since 2018, uses a tower yoke mooring supplied by NOV APL — a rigid hinged arm connected to seabed piles. This dampens motion and minimises riser fatigue. In Q1 2025, Golar announced that Hilli Episeyo was central to a 2.45M tonnes LNG production project off Argentina commencing in 2027. Petronas pursued both fixed and mobile approaches. PFLNG Satu employs an external turret mooring allowing relocation from Kanowit to Kebabangan. PFLNG Dua, moored in 1,250 metres of water off Sabah, uses a permanent turret with eight polyester mooring lines and steel risers in a lazy-wave design to mitigate deepwater bending fatigue. Eni’s Coral Sul FLNG off Mozambique adopts a turret mooring similar to Prelude, with internal weathervaning and 20 taut mooring lines in 2,000 metres of water. High- Integrity Pressure Protection Systems (HIPPS) limit pressure surges into the risers, reflecting emphasis on reducing peak load stress cycles. Eni’s Congo LNG project introduced a novel split-mooring arrangement. Tango FLNG, operating alongside the LNG carrier Excalibur, features individual mooring for each unit, functioning as a coupled floating production and storage system. Each vessel bears its own environmental load, offering flexibility in decommissioning or redeployment. In the United States, Delfin Midstream is planning a fleet of deepwater FLNG vessels based on disconnectable single-point moorings. A turret or tower yoke system connected to a submerged buoy will allow the vessel to sail to safety during hurricanes. Dynamic positioning (DP) capability will supplement mooring during offloading. Delfin CEO, Dudley Poston, highlighted significant governmental support for the project, now granted a 16 | FLOATING LNGwww.lngworldshipping.com LNG Shipping & Terminals | 2nd Quarter 2025 FLOATING LNG | 17 permit extension in Q1 2025. BP’s Greater Tortue Ahmeyim (GTA), FLNG Gimi offshore Mauritania and Senegal is moored behind a man made breakwater. Its system includes 26 mooring lines made of synthetic rope and aramid fibre, tensioned to maintain berth alignment within a 0.3-metre tolerance. Tugs assist with mooring and heading control, reducing reliance on built-in thrusters. Nigerian newcomer UTM Offshore, partnering with NNPC, plans a turret- moored FLNG at the Yoho field. The internal turret design prioritises proven systems and rotational flexibility. Flexible risers connect to a nearby production platform, reducing subsea complexity. In Gabon, Perenco’s Cap Lopez FLNG will utilise existing jetty infrastructure at the old oil terminal. A side-by-side offloading system will link the floating liquefaction barge with a converted LNG carrier used as an FSU. Fatigue life for jetty hooks and loading arms remains a key consideration despite mild estuary weather. In Europe, floating LNG is focused on regasification. The Independence FSRU at Klaipėda, Lithuania, typifies Baltic strategies, permanently berthed at a fixed jetty using quick-release hooks and marine fenders. Toscana FSRU is tethered offshore via a turret- type connection to a fixed subsea riser. A floating pipeline segment and a subsea anchoring spread allow permanent offshore station-keeping, with tugs assisting LNG carriers during side-by-side transfers. Fatigue management across platforms is increasingly central to long-term operability. In deepwater locations fatigue mitigation is handled through riser configurations: lazy-wave designs, bend stiffeners, and HIPPS systems reduce curvature and stress. For mooring lines, polyester rope segments replace heavy steel to dampen cyclic loads and permit greater elasticity. Shell’s Prelude highlighted the need for continuous fatigue monitoring after a mooring line failure in 2018, leading to fairlead redesigns and material changes. Load cells and tension monitoring are now integrated. As a Prelude engineer observed: “Mooring failures are rare but not impossible. Engineering redundancy must be matched by operational vigilance.” Similarly, BP’s Tortue installation employs nylon dampers within synthetic mooring lines, acting as shock absorbers. Aramid is preferred over polyester for the line core to achieve lower creep under load and enhanced fatigue life. Class societies including DNV and ABS now require full-scale fatigue testing of mooring elements. One compelling design evolution is the move towards hybrid station- keeping. Thruster-assisted mooring, used by Shell and planned by Delfin, allows vessels to orient optimally during offloading, reducing broadside wave impact. Positional mooring (POSMOOR) manages mooring tension actively with controlled thrust. Dual-vessel configurations such as Eni’s Congo FLNG and FSU pairing challenge traditional LNG terminal assumptions. Operating independently moored but functionally coupled, this setup offers modularity and flexibility. LNG transfer between vessels uses floating cryogenic hoses, designed to withstand fatigue and motion stresses. Disconnectable turrets, borrowed from the FPSO sector, remain under study for Gulf of Mexico installations. The turret buoy remains moored while the vessel departs during extreme weather, central to Delfin’s risk management approach. Classification societies are shaping mooring technology expectations. DNV’s OS-E301 mandates full fatigue life assessments including out-of-plane mooring chain bending. ABS updates FLNG-specific guidelines covering turret fatigue, riser insulation, and swivel seal longevity. Regional regulators are asserting influence. Australia’s NOPSEMA investigations into Prelude’s 2018 mooring incident informed retrofits. In the US, MARAD requires hurricane contingency plans for floating deepwater ports, impacting design choices such as disconnectable moorings. As the sector expands through 2030, technical diversity in mooring systems will continue. Turret moorings will dominate in harsh environments, but hybrid systems, disconnectable units, and split mooring configurations are demonstrating increasing value. With advances in fatigue monitoring, riser stress reduction, and regulatory guidance, mooring has emerged not just as an enabler, but as a core determinant of floating LNG’s long- term viability. LNG From 2027, Golar’s Hilli Episeyo FLNG will be on the move again to Argentina (source: Golar) Mooring failures are rare but not impossible. Engineering redundancy must be matched by operational vigilance “Next >